Hydrothermal carbonization as an alternative sanitation technology: process optimization and development of low-cost reactor.

However, the results must be interpreted carefully and not be considered as an indication for suggesting energy independence (no external energy input needed) of treatment concept, because i) the energy input in the commercial reactor system only measured the electric energy used for heating the vessel; energy input from other units such as process parameter monitoring and controlling devices might be significant, and ii) the HHV of HC was obtained by bomb calorimetry carried out under surplus provision of oxygen.

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