Polymorphic variations and mRNA expression of the genes encoding interleukins as well as enzymes of oxidative and nitrative stresses as a potential risk of nephrolithiasis development.

Moreover, the latest kidney stone-related GWAS reported in an Eastern European population showed three loci as candidates with a highly significant association with nephrolithiasis: (i) rs1118528 in the gene, encoding a mitochondrial ATP-Mg/phosphate carrier protein; (ii) rs4437026 causing TOX2 upregulation in several tumour types and l tumour progression; (iii) and rs10917682 localised in regulator of G protein signalling 5, playing crucial roles in the development of renal cell carcinoma [ 57 ].

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