Assessment of the environmental kuznets curve within EU-27: Steps toward environmental sustainability (1990-2019).

, n In this case, Sen's slope ( S s ) ( ρ ) is the median of the time series (Г) for n values and is denoted in equation (6) : (6) ρ = { Г n + 1 2 , n is odd 1 2 ( Г n 2 + Г n + 2 2 ) , n is even where a positive value of ρ indicates an increasing trend, while a negative value refers to a declining tendency, finally, the results were visualized using the geographical information system (GIS). 3.2 Trend change point detection To identify the trend-changing points (years) in the time series, a homogeneity nonparametric Buishand range (BR) [ 41 ] test was applied.

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