Three decades of nearshore surveys reveal long-term patterns in gray whale habitat use, distribution, and abundance in the Northern California Current.

However, the variability in the combined abundance estimates produced by our regional DSMs was much less than the variability in mark-recapture abundance estimates produced from individual photo-identification data across a larger study extent 25 , which generally show a strong increase between 1996 and 2015, followed by a decreasing trend in recent years (Fig. 5 ).

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The highly significant interactive effect of cumulative CUTI and cumulative relaxation revealed an optimal combination whereby increased cumulative CUTI only had a positive effect on gray whale abundance if it coincided with greater cumulative relaxation (Fig. 3 ).

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