Associations of the circulating levels of cytokines with the risk of myeloproliferative neoplasms: a bidirectional mendelian-randomization study.

Bias caused by confounding variables or reverse causality is avoided [ 18 ].In reality, however, it is well known that the level of gene expression determines the unique characteristics of a cell, that differences in disease prevalence between populations are associated with the frequency of alleles that regulate polymorphisms, and that differences in allele frequencies between racial groups have highly significant phenotypic consequences [ 59 ].Significant differences in gene expression phenotypes have been reported for at least 25 percent of genes between Europeans and Asians, and specific genetic variants (allele frequencies) between populations are the main cause of these differences [ 59 ].Therefore, in Mendelian randomisation analyses, genetic differences in quantitative phenotypes between different ethnic groups may be functionally equally important.

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