Socio-economic and environmental trade-offs in Amazonian protected areas and Indigenous territories revealed by assessing competing land uses.

SPAs are also potentially less effective at reducing deforestation relative to areas dominated by small landholders, but our result is only marginally non-significant and the estimated effect size is much larger than that of SUPAs (SPAs = −30.7%, P = 0.08; Fig. 1 and Supplementary Table 1 ).

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