Cohort and gender differences in the association between childlessness and social exclusion in old age.

In southern European countries (Spain, Italy), the effect of childlessness was marginally significant for meetings (estimate: − 0.15, CI: − 0.31, 0.01, p = 0.066), showing a potential trend towards fewer meetings for childless individuals, but it was not significant for activities (CI: − 0.18, 0.10, p = 0.542).

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