Refractory phenotype of <i>Aspergillus</i>-sensitized asthma with bronchiectasis and allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis.

33 A study of bronchiectasis revealed that patients with fungal sensitization were characterized by an increasing trend in sputum positivity of galactomannan and elevated sputum levels of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β, which are major cytokines produced by monocytes or monocyte-derived macrophages, 12 , 34 which upregulate adhesion molecules in the endothelium and result in neutrophil and eosinophil airway recruitment. 35 This study has some limitations.

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