Vegetation restoration effectiveness with main factors in the Beijing-Tianjin sandstorm source region during 2000-2020, China.

Grassland makes up the majority of the ecosystem type (58.1% of the area), with significantly more artificial vegetation in the east than in the west ( Fig 1d ); both vegetation quality and area show a decreasing trend from east to the west and from south to north, which is consistent with the distribution of precipitation [ 22 ].

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Results VQQI changes in BTSSR from 2000 to 2020 From 2000 to 2020, the annual average VQQI in BTSSR exhibited the increasing trend, with a growth rate of 0.21% per year ( p < 0.01), which suggested a positive trend in vegetation growth and an overall enhancement in vegetation quality ( Fig 2 ).

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