Unseen Threats: The Impact of Relatively Low-Level Ambient Air Pollution on Autoimmune Diseases.

However, research in this area remains limited; to date, only a few studies have examined such modifying effects in autoimmune conditions like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Specifically, subgroup analyses in UK biobank data revealed that the association between PM 2.5 exposure and the risk of incident UC was significant among nonsmokers (HR: 1.09, 95% CI:1.02–1.15), but not among current smokers (HR: 0.91, 95% CI: 0.78–1.06), with a marginally significant P -interaction value of 0.063.

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