There was no significant group effect (F = 0.000, p = 0.999, ηp 2 = 0.000), but a highly significant time × group interaction was observed (F = 111.966, p < 0.001, ηp 2 = 0.718), indicating distinct BMI trajectories between groups.
13 , 33 However, despite the lower absolute strength gains observed in the EMS group, the improvements were still statistically and practically significant, supporting EMS as a viable training modality for strength enhancement, particularly in populations with limited access to conventional resistance training.