The within-subjects growth for rhythm skills ( d = 0.74), accuracy percentage ( d = 0.32), and accuracy level ( d = 0.45) were all significant (all ps < 0.001), with a trend toward significance for fluency level ( p = 0.12, d = 0.12).
Implications The results from this study do not suggest a causal relationship between growth in rhythm and literacy skills, even though cross-sectional correlations at two Time points were highly significant.
This may show how an emphasis on literacy skills at the school level during certain ages may positively influence within-subjects data or make between-groups comparisons less likely to be significant when studying literacy during this developmental stage.