Real-time fMRI neurofeedback boosts heartbeat perception by modulating insula activation pattern during interoceptive attention.

Results revealed a marginally significant run × group interaction ( F 3, 156 = 2.708, p = .047, η 2 p = .050), while the main effects of run ( F 3, 156 = 1.119, p = .343, η 2 p = .021) and group ( F 1, 52 = 1.774, p = .189, η 2 p = .033) were not significant.

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While post hoc comparisons did not reveal significant session-dependent improvement in either the NF group ( t = 1.972, d = 0.280, corrected- p = .323) or Sham group ( t = -1.258, d = -0.185, corrected- p = 1), a simple main effect analysis suggested a trend toward significance for session in the NF group ( F = 3.890, p = .054).

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