Socioeconomic and climatic factors influencing desertification in Saudi Arabia through an ARDL approach.

For TA and VI, the results at level (I 0 ) are less conclusive, with one test sometimes showing marginal significance while the other does not.

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However, all three variables become stationary after taking the first difference (I 1 ), with highly significant results (1% level) from both the ADF and PP tests.

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