Prevalence and Risk Factors of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease in Kazakhstan in a Nationwide Population-Based Epidemiological Study.

Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis · 2026 · PMC12947755 · PMID 41769365

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highly significantno p-value reported

Such model showed highly significant associations of age (OR 1.05; 95% CI 1.04;1.05), ever-smoking (OR 2.44; 95% CI 1.81;3.33), low educational level (OR 1.80; 95% CI 1.42;2.28), exposure to VGDF (OR 1.41; 95% CI 1.10;1.82), regular exercise (OR 0.37; 95% CI 0.21;0.63) and tuberculosis in the past (OR 4.12. 95% CI 2.19;7.45) with COPD, with all these predictors putting humans at risk for the disease, except exercise.

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