Living Alone as a Persistent Risk Factor for Smoking and High-Risk Drinking: A Three-Year Repeated Cross-Sectional Analysis Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic in the Republic of Korea.

For 2021, the smoking interaction term reached marginal significance (AOR = 1.08, 95% CI: 1.01–1.16, p = 0.032), suggesting that smoking declined somewhat less among single-person households relative to multi-person households in the later pandemic period; however, this effect was modest in magnitude.

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Critically, the year x household type interaction was non-significant for high-risk drinking across all years; for smoking, a marginally significant interaction emerged only in 2021 (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.08, 95% CI: 1.01–1.16), suggesting a slight but limited divergence in the later pandemic period.

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