Harnessing the potential of lead-free BiFeO<sub>3</sub>-based perovskite solar cell architectures: a gateway to next-generation energy challenges.

4(a) , shows J – V curve, across the entire range of ETL thickness (80–200 nm), while it exhibits a decreasing trend with increasing voltage, declining from 7.97 mA cm −2 at 0 V.

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7(e) , the FF exhibits an increasing trend with rising N A , reaching a peak value of 74.76% at an N A of 1 × 10 19 cm −3 and a relative permittivity below 5.83, where improved charge collection efficiency enhances device performance.

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