Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity and the Impact of PM1 and Nitrogen Oxides on Chronic Kidney Disease Mortality in 39 European Countries (1990-2022): A Multi-Model Analysis.

While regional disparities exist ( Figure 3A ), NOx exposure exhibited a highly significant positive association with mortality (β = 0.377 per 1-unit increase, P < 0.001, Figure 3B–E ); here, the unstandardized β coefficients represent the absolute change in deaths per 100,000 population (raw ASMR scale).

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Among these, PM1 exhibited the strongest spatial explanatory power ( q = 0.243, p < 0.001), with the explanatory capacity showing a decreasing trend with increasing particle size (PM1: q = 0.243; PM2.5: q = 0.228; PM10: q = 0.227).

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