Daily outdoor PM<sub>2·5</sub> exposure characterization and road edge effect during a 2022 - 2023 monitoring campaign in Gambia, Kenya and Mozambique.

5c ), PM 2·5 demonstrated a strong and highly significant decrease with distance (β = −0.6345 μg m −3 per 100 m; 95% CI: −0.6989 to −0.5701; R 2 = 0.7919; r = −0.8899; p < 0.001), indicating a pronounced near-road effect.

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