Sound to language: different cortical processing for first and second languages in elementary school children as revealed by a large-scale study using fNIRS.

Statistical comparisons of the children’s ratings of their semantic knowledge of the word stimuli between the 4 tasks using a 2 × 2 repeated-measures ANOVA revealed highly significant main effects of language ( F [1, 29] = 253.76, P < 0.001), word frequency ( F [1, 29] = 1492.75, P < 0.001), and a language × word-frequency interaction ( F [1, 29] = 209.79, P < 0.001).

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Appropriate post hoc pairwise comparisons using paired t -tests showed significant differences in children’s ratings of their semantic knowledge between the tasks: Jpn_HF > Eng_HF, Jpn_HF > Jpn_LF, and Eng_HF > Eng_LF (corrected P < 0.001), but the difference between Jpn_LF & Eng_LF failed to reach significance.

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Moreover, a recent fNIRS study revealed that the word-frequency effect elicited significant differences between low and high-frequency words for decreases in [deoxy-Hb], while [oxy-Hb] changes only showed a nonsignificant trend ( Hofmann et al. 2008 ).

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