The energetic costs associated with activation – due in part to pumping calcium ions to restore the electrochemical gradient after a contraction ( Barclay, 2012 ) – may be significant, apparently dominating the physiological demands of steady, level locomotion ( Pontzer, 2007 , Pontzer, 2016 , broadly extending observations of Kram and Taylor (1990) ).
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Physiological, aerodynamic and geometric constraints of flapping account for bird gaits, and bounding and flap-gliding flight strategies.
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