marginally significantP ≤ 0.05
The number of brood had a marginally significant effect (GLMM: brood F 1,177 = 5.237; P ≤ 0.05), while population and colony phase (i.e., the presence or absence of adult offspring) had no significant effect (population F 1,175 = 0.093; P = 0.761; colony phase F 1,176 = 0.157; P = 0.692).