Climatic oscillations in Quaternary have shaped the co-evolutionary patterns between the Norway spruce and its host-associated herbivore.

Pairwise F ST between the Alpine–Carpathian and northeastern European regions was moderate and highly significant ( F ST = 0.119, P < 0.001, Table 2 ), as was the differentiation between the Alpine–Carpathian and Asian regions ( F ST = 0.181, P < 0.001, Table 2 ).

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