Spatio-temporal patterns of multi-trophic biodiversity and food-web characteristics uncovered across a river catchment using environmental DNA.

Taxon replacement between sites increased over river distance for all groups in most seasons (significant or marginally significant, for all β-diversity results see Supplementary Table S10 ), apart from fish (Mantel statistics: 0.07, p = 0.891) and bacteria (Mantel statistics: 0.016, p = 0.34) in spring.

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Food-web connectance, nestedness and omnivory increased with increasing drainage area, particularly in summer, and in contrast showed a decreasing trend in spring and autumn (Fig. 4c, e, and g ).

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