Assessing the spillover effects of research and development and renewable energy on CO₂ emissions: international evidence.

( 5 )), we observe a positive association between the R&D coefficient and CO 2 emissions, and the coefficient is marginally significant at the 14% level.

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First, it results in a positive and highly significant R&D coefficient, reinforcing the scale-effect results from the fourth specification.

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This justifies the nonsignificance or marginal significance of the R&D coefficient in the specifications that ignored its spillover effects (Eqs.

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