Excerpts

Five transparency indicators (funding disclosure, bias discussion, confounder consideration, protocol registration, reporting-guideline adherence) and five spin indicators (selective focus, unsupported efficacy claims, emphasis on benefits, recommendations despite nonsignificance, “trend toward significance” language) were coded dichotomously.

g the abstract on favorable secondary trends or outcomes); (4) recommendation of treatment despite non-significant results (concluding that an intervention should be adopted or recommended although primary outcomes are non-significant); and (5) “trend toward significance” language (phrases such as “borderline significant”, “approached significance”, or “trend toward significance” used to imply meaningful benefit).