Spatial-temporal changes of landscape and habitat quality in typical ecologically fragile areas of western China over the past 40 years: A case study of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region.

During the 40 years, the land use types that increased in Ningxia were cultivated land (2.74%), forestland (0.96%) and construction land (2.79%), whereas the areas of grassland (−5.36%), water (−0.29%) and untapped land (−0.83%) generally showed a decreasing trend.

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From 1980 to 2020, the MPA of Ningxia landscape types decreased from 213.93 ha in 1980 to 188.03 ha in 2020; the PD increased from 0.47 to 0.53; the LPI decreased from 37.23 to 21.54; the ED increased 26.7 to 29.2; the CONTAG decreased from 60.11 to 57.12; the AWMPFD remained basically with values of 1.29 and 1.28; the LSI increased from 154.84 in 1980 to 170.78 in 2010 and then slightly decreased to 168.78 in 2020; the AWMSI decreased from 60.68 to 51.23; both SHDI and SHEI exhibited a slightly increasing trend; SHDI increased from 1.23 to 1.32 and SHEI increased from 0.69 to 0.73 (Table 4 ). 3.2 Spatial–temporal distribution and change of habitat quality in Ningxia 3.2.1 Spatial–temporal distribution and aggregation characteristics The natural breakpoint method was used to classify the habitat quality level into five levels: very low (0–0.25), low (0.25–0.4), moderate (0.4–0.6), high (0.6–0.75) and very high (0.75–1).

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The Shannon Diversity Index and Shannon Evenness Index both show an increasing trend, but the amplitude is relatively small, with 0.09 and 0.04, respectively.

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The Landscape Shape Index showed a trend of first increasing and then decreasing, increasing by 13.94.

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