Neutralizing antibody and CD8⁺ T cell responses following BA.4/5 bivalent COVID-19 booster vaccination in adults with and without prior exposure to SARS-CoV-2.

However, while some subjects showed a trend for increasing S protein-specific CD8 + T cell frequencies after each antigen exposure (i.e., infection or booster vaccination), no significant differences in the frequencies of S protein-specific CD8 + T cells were found at any time point (excluding comparisons to the pre-vaccination time point, p >0.05, Dunn’s corrected Kruskal-Wallis test).

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