Comprehensive analysis of spatial heterogeneity reveals the important role of the upper-layer fermented grains in the fermentation and flavor formation of <i>Qingxiangxing baijiu</i>.

Ethyl acetate exhibited a decreasing trend from the UL to the BL.

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Specifically, the VFC contents showed a trend of upper layer > lower layer > middle layer.

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The starch content of FG in the UL, ML, and BL showed an increasing trend, with values of 11.2, 11.6, and 14.9 g/100 g, respectively, which were lower than that of pre-fermentation samples (15.6 g/100 g) ( Fig. 2 D).

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