Particulate Matter and Incident Chronic Kidney Disease in Japan: The Ibaraki Prefectural Health Study (IPHS).

Although concentrations showed a decreasing trend from 1998 to 2015 in most municipalities ( Figure 2 ), those for the exposure period (1987-1995) had remained largely consistent with mean levels remaining within 20.6-24.0 μg/m 3 .

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Although the association did not reach statistical significance in this study, environmental exposure to elevated concentrations of PM 2.5 may be a novel risk factor for the development of renal dysfunction, independent of classical CKD risks such as hypertension and diabetes, consistent with a recent systematic review (13) and two additional studies in the United States (11) and China (12) .

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