Causal effect of immune cells, metabolites, cathepsins, and vitamin therapy in diabetic retinopathy: a Mendelian randomization and cross-sectional study.

In addition, we also found that the biosynthesis of valine, leucine, and isoleucine is highly significant in PDR, consistent with previous research findings ( 57 ).

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Regarding vitamin intakes, significant differences were observed between the DR groups and the control group for vitamin B1, B2, B6, B12, and E, while differences in vitamin A, C, and K did not reach statistical significance.

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