An updated insight into the effect of β-adrenergic receptor antagonists (β-blockers) on respiratory function in asthma patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Although the effect did not reach statistical significance (P > 0.05), the observed SMD of −0.21 corresponds to a small effect size according to Cohen’s criteria ( Andrade, 2020 ).

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Although the lack of heterogeneity ( I 2 = 0%) suggests consistent findings across studies, the result should be interpreted with caution due to the borderline significance and the fact that the confidence interval just touches zero.

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