Multiscale analysis of Rb<sub>2</sub>NaInI<sub>6</sub>: from electronic structure to device performance for next-generation perovskite solar cells.

21a , the capacitance–voltage ( C – V ) characteristics reveal an increasing trend with forward bias for all devices, indicating enhanced charge accumulation at higher voltages.

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Across all ETLs, a clear trend emerges: as the absorber defect density ( N t ) increases, V oc consistently decreases due to enhanced non-radiative recombination, which reduces the quasi-Fermi level splitting and ultimately lowers the open-circuit potential.

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