Coupled freeze-thaw and sulfate attack on coal gangue-based cemented backfill: pore evolution and damage modeling.

3 a, after 50 cycles, the compressive strength loss rates for the four mixtures were as follows: FS-P1 (84.9%), FS-P2 (73.2%), FS-P3 (89.6%), and FS-P4 (98.6%), revealing a clear trend that higher binder content leads to greater compressive strength retention.

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All groups exhibited an increasing trend in harmful pores, with the FS-P4 group showing the fastest growth—from 35 to 65% (an 85.7% increase)—attributed to its initially high porosity (35%) caused by aggregate packing and the synergistic expansion of pores by frost heave stress and sulfate crystallization pressure.

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