highly significantp < 0.001
In contrast, fasting glucose and HbA1c levels demonstrated highly significant differences between groups ( p < 0.001) with the diabetic group exhibited the highest mean fasting glucose (150.3 ± 18.6 mg/dL) and HbA1c levels (8.1 ± 1.2%), followed by the prediabetic group (110.8 ± 7.5 mg/dL; 5.9 ± 0.2%) and the non-diabetic group (90.5 ± 6.2 mg/dL; 5.4 ± 0.2%).