Fully end-to-end automated bladder segmentation and risk assessment based on bladder morphology features for predicting upper urinary tract dysfunction.

Among the fractal features, only lacunarity exhibited a marginally significant difference, indicating irregular edge or texture distribution, which may reflect the presence of voids, cracks, or structural disruptions.

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Our findings indicate that higher-grade bladders exhibit increased Lacunarity, with a P -value approaching significance, suggesting greater structural heterogeneity and a higher likelihood of irregular or trabeculated regions.

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