Digital spatial profiling reveals additive effects of triple therapy on tumor microenvironment: anti-PD-L1, anti-VEGF, and PARP inhibition in mouse models.

Reflecting this specific upregulation, the integrated HEV-related signature—encompassing all four subsets—showed a trend toward higher expression in the anti-PD-L1 + anti-VEGF and triple combination groups (Supplementary Fig. 3 e).

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While the total CD8 + cell density showed an increasing trend (4.9-fold) in the chemotherapy-sensitive group, the density of CD8 + and Granzyme B + cells significantly increased 66.6-fold after treatment in this group ( p = 0.048) (Fig. 7 ).

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