Academic integrity across educational levels: Exploring students' engagement with grey-zone and non-compliant practices in four European countries.

We see a clear trend in the data for the first two practices, such that participants at more advanced levels were more frequently able to identify them correctly as non-compliant; 79% of upper secondary level participants identified copying an entire page as non-compliant, compared to 90% of Bachelor and 95% of PhD level participants.

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3) There is a weak trend linking dedicated training to PhD level participants’ handling of likely non-compliant actions regarding data at the small effect size level (OR range: 1.68–1.73).

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