Sex differences in the genetic and causal relationships between depression, smoking, and alcohol use: the role of socioeconomic status.

Psychol Med · 2026 · PMC12969216 · PMID 41766371

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nominally significantno p-value reported

In the MVMR adjusting for SES ( Figure 4b ), the effect of MDD on smoking initiation was completely attenuated, while the effect on PAU remained almost unchanged and was nominally significant across all SES proxies.

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