Fecal microbiota succession in dairy calves is driven by age and modestly influenced by colostrum source.

PERMANOVA confirmed a highly significant effect of time (weeks) on microbial community structure (F = 60.664; P = 0.0001), whereas treatment had no significant standalone effect (F = 0.8889; P = 0.4175; Fig. 6 ).

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A clear trend of microbial succession from facultative to obligate anaerobes appeared to occur, consistent with the expected establishment of an anaerobic gut environment alongside early physiological and nutritional changes.

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