Sex-specific metabolic and microbial remodeling in a rotenone-induced rat model of Parkinson's disease following nicotine administration.

Statistical analysis of α-synuclein immunofluorescence in the striatum revealed a highly significant main effect of group (F (2,24) = 10.17, p = 0.0006), whereas neither sex (F (1,24) = 0.621, p = 0.438) nor the group × sex interaction (F (2,24) = 0.094, p = 0.911) showed significant effects.

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Crucially, nicotine modulated multiple components of the gut–brain axis in a sex-dependent manner: it significantly improved colon health, reduced plasma α-synuclein, and suppressed gut inflammation in females, whereas corresponding changes in males were less pronounced or did not reach statistical significance.

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