Fenced enclosure and increased rainfall facilitate recovery of degraded desert steppe by restructuring soil seed bank dynamics.

After 1 to 2 years of enclosure, species richness exhibited no significant change but still showed a trend of 10-year enclosed control plots > moderate grazing plots > intense grazing plots (Fig. 8 ).

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After 2 years of enclosure, density showed a decreasing trend but was still significantly higher than that in the year of enclosure (Fig. 7 c).

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Results Characteristics of vegetation and soil seed banks in desert steppe under different grazing intensities At experimental initiation in 2021, highly significant differences were observed in species number, richness, density, and diversity of both aboveground vegetation and soil seed banks across grasslands under different grazing intensity regimes ( P < 0.001, Tables 2 and 3 ).

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