Multi-decadal landscape dynamics and ecological security trajectories driven by 43-year land use changes in Kashgar, an arid border region of Northwest China.

Analysis of landscape pattern indices at landscape level As shown in Table 7 , the landscape pattern indices in the Kashgar region, including patch density (PD), largest patch index (LPI), landscape shape index (LSI), edge density (ED), and shannon’s diversity index (SHDI), generally increased from 1980 to 2023, while the contagion index (CONTAG) demonstrated a decreasing trend over the same period.

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Relative humidity decline showed a positive association with unused land expansion (rs = 0.79, p = 0.06), though this relationship did not reach statistical significance at the α = 0.05 threshold; nonetheless, the observed trend is consistent with the interpretation that drying conditions may accelerate conversion of marginal lands.

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