Gene expression profiling of human alveolar macrophages infected by B. anthracis spores demonstrates TNF-alpha and NF-kappab are key components of the innate immune response to the pathogen.

There were additional small inducible cytokines (MIP-1β, MIP-1γ, MIP-3α, CCL14 and CCL25) that appeared to be differentially expressed at the level of transcription by spore exposure, but the differences did not reach statistical significance.

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