The geography of fear: a latitudinal gradient in anti-predator escape distances of birds across Europe.

Mean FID in the 714 populations ranged from 1 to 180 m, mean (SE) = 11.46 m (1.03; back-transformed from log 10 -transformed data), with a highly significant effect of species ( F = 3.06, df = 158, 555, R 2 = 0.47, P <0.0001).

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Mean density of raptors at the nine sites showed a significant trend with decreasing abundance at higher latitudes ( Fig. 2 ; GLM: F = 5.67, df = 1, 7, P = 0.032) with a large effect size ( r = 0.506; 95% CI: 0.052–0.787).

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