Winners and losers: How the elevational range of breeding birds on Alps has varied over the past four decades due to climate and habitat changes.

Both temperature and shrub and forest cover showed a positive trend along the time series and resulted the most likely causes of the significant elevational displacement for 21 of the 29 investigated birds.

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Then, we classified the patterns of elevational range change for all species showing a significant trend in at least one of their reference points as: (a) “contraction” when the changes of the reference points brought to a distance reduction between the extreme reference points; (b) “expansion” when the changes of the reference points brought to an increase of the distance between extreme reference points; (c) “shift” when the changes of the reference points were consistent between each other.

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