Keeping an Eye on Effort: A Pupillometric Investigation of Effort and Effortlessness in Visual Word Recognition.

In addition, the overall main effect for length approached significance, F (1, 17) = 3.47, p = .08, η p 2 = .17, OP = .42 (five-letter strings: M = 6.16%, SD = 3.99; three-letter strings: M = 5.46%, SD = 3.44), whereas the familiarity-by-length interaction was significant, F (1, 17) = 5.03, p = .04, η p 2 = .23, OP = .56, with a significant length effect for pseudowords (five-letter strings: M = 7.17%, SD = 4.73; three-letter strings: M = 5.43%, SD = 3.50), t (17) = −2.73, p = .01, but not real words (three letters: M = 5.48%, SD = 3.63; five letters: M = 5.14%, SD = 3.89), t (17) = 0.62, p = .55.

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The interaction between familiarity and length, although in the predicted direction, failed to reach significance, F (1, 29) = 2.35, p = .14, η p 2 = .08, OP = .32 (pseudowords—three letters: M = 2,276 ms, SD = 501, five letters: M = 2,522 ms, SD = 505; real words—three letters: M = 1,967 ms, SD = 695, five letters: M = 2,042 ms, SD = 528). 2 Behavioral data Both times and accuracy for yoked pairs pronounced correctly were analyzed with a two-way repeated measures ANOVA with familiarity (familiar vs. unfamiliar) and length (three letters vs. five letters) as within-subjects factors.

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