Raw and <i>Sous-Vide</i>-Cooked Red Cardoon Stalks (<i>Cynara cardunculus</i> L. var. <i>altilis</i> DC): (Poly)phenol Bioaccessibility, Anti-inflammatory Activity in the Gastrointestinal Tract, and Prebiotic Activity.

HT-29 cells treated with 0.1 μg/mL of LPS for 48 h (called “control + LPS”) induced a highly significant increase ( p < 0.001) of all the tested cytokines with respect to the control ( Figures 2 and 3 ).

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coccoides group includes many acetate- and/or lactate-converting butyrate producers, 36 and an increase in the production of butyric acid was observed with raw cardoon, sous-vide -cooked cardoon, and FOS fermentations at 24 and 48 h, although it did not reach statistical significance due to great variability in the butyrate production among volunteers ( Table 3 ).

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Similar to acetate, propionate production showed an increasing trend during fermentation but the highest increase occurred from 8 h to 24 h of fermentation of cardoon samples.

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