Urban bat pups take after their mothers and are bolder and faster learners than rural pups.

Results remained highly significant when excluding the cross-fostered bats ( n = 11), which were only tested in year 3 ( P < 0.00001; learning : 0.19±17 vs. 0.45 ±0.19 error rates, respectively, R 2 =0.72, p < 0.00001, mixed GLM with learning set as the response variable, the origin as a fixed factor and the bat’s ID as a random effect, n = 65).

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The negative correlation between the error rates in the learning task and exploration also approached significance (Pearson’s correlation test; R = − 0.22, P =0.08; respectively).

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