Health impacts of air pollution exposure from 1990 to 2019 in 43 European countries.

Although all countries (except Monaco) decreased their aPM 2.5 level in 2019 compared to 1990, 31 of 43 European countries had a negative PMR change and an unfavorable trend of increasing PMR in 2019 compared to 1990, thus not reducing its aPM 2.5 concentration to at least the extent of decrease in the European median.

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During the 29-year time period, we also observed a decreasing trend of all-cause median death rate of all European countries, with a total reduction of 40.6% (Fig. 3 ).

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